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Nevertheless, astronomy was one of the leading fields of study, and extant works of mathematicians and
scientific writers display a variety of ideas. Geocentricism was the accepted theory in Rome, and the
heliocentric ideas of Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 B.C.) were ignored.
Cicero (d. 43 B.C.), an avid follower of Archimedes, studied certain astronomical theories, and the
Academy placed the science in its course of study. M. Terrentius Varro (1st century B.C.) wrote of
astrologia is his treatise on liberal arts, one among the 488 lost books of which he was author. General
acceptance of astronomy was evidenced by the work of Sosigenes, a Greek astronomer who redesigned the
Republican calendar.
Other studies were made, especially at Alexandria, the active home of astronomy in many eras. Two
names in particular are known: Theon of Smyrna and Claudius Ptolemy (fl. 127-141 A. D.). Theon
examined mathematics from an astronomical perspective, while Ptolemy authored the Great Collection,
which was a vast treatise on the subject, covering the planets and the works of previous Greek
astronomers. The Great Collection, compiled in the mid-2nd century A.D., was consulted by the Arabs,
who called it Al-majisti, and by Europeans until the 16th century.
Sailors of the period knew the stars and, because of astrology, the constellations and the planets of
Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus and Mercury. Unfortunately, the astronomy of the Roman Empire was not
particularly original, save for the compilations and extensive calculations of Ptolemy.
¤ ATHANASIUS ("St. Athanasius") (c. 295-373 A.D.) Bishop of Alexandria and a 4th-century
theologian who was one of the most active leaders against ARIANISM in the church. Receiving a
suitable education before becoming a member of the Christian clergy in his home city of Alexandria, he
served under Alexander of Alexandria and accompanied him to the Council of Nicaea in 325, where
Arianism was officially condemned. Three years later he was chosen by Alexander to be the bishop of
Alexandria.
Constantine I twice listened to the Arians and Melitians, and Athanasius was forced to defend himself in
331 and 335. The second time resulted in his exile to Gaul, after the Council of Tyre expelled him. In 337,
Athanasius was reinstated by Constantine II, but was deposed by the Arians, who then refused to accept a
synod of bishops that had exonerated him.
Constantius allowed Athanasius to return to Alexandria in 346, but he was condemned again at the
Council of Aries (353) and at the Council of Milan (355). Athanasius was then forced to seek shelter in the
Libyan desert.
Julian the Apostate became emperor and in February of 362, Athanasius returned to Alexandria.
Arianism was strongly condemned by a synod, but a strong attempt at
reconciliation was made with the
Homoiousians (who believed in the separateness of Christ from the Father), and many so called Semi-
Arians were brought back into the church. Julian, however, feared Athanasius's success and exiled him in
October of 362. Jovian brought him back, but in 364, Valens (co-emperor with Valentinian) sent him
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